Effects of identical example–problem and problem–example pairs on learning

Tamara van Gog

Computers & Education Vol. 57, No. 2 (September 2011) pp. 1775–1779

Examples are often an integral part of online learning environments directed at the acquisition of problem-solving skills. An unresolved issue, however, is when examples should be provided to learners. Prior research has suggested that example...

Example-Based Learning: Integrating Cognitive and Social-Cognitive Research Perspectives

Tamara van Gog; Nikol Rummel

Educational Psychology Review Vol. 22, No. 2 (June 2010) pp. 155–174

Example-based learning has been studied from different perspectives. Cognitive research has mainly focused on "worked" examples, which typically provide students with a written worked-out didactical solution to a problem to study. Social-cognitive...

Seeing the instructor's face and gaze in demonstration video examples affects attention allocation but not learning

Margot van Wermeskerken; Tamara van Gog

Computers & Education Vol. 113, No. 1 (October 2017) pp. 98–107

Although the use of video examples in which an instructor demonstrates how to perform a task has become widespread in online and blended education, specific guidelines for designing such examples to optimize learning are scarce. One design question...

Language: English

Learning from video modeling examples: Effects of seeing the human model's face

Tamara van Gog; Ilse Verveer; Lise Verveer

Computers & Education Vol. 72, No. 1 (March 2014) pp. 323–327

Video modeling examples in which a human(-like) model shows learners how to perform a task are increasingly used in education, as they have become very easy to create and distribute in e-learning environments. However, little is known about design...

Language: English

Designing Effective Video-Based Modeling Examples Using Gaze and Gesture Cues

Kim Ouwehand; Tamara van Gog; Fred Paas

Educational Technology & Society Vol. 18, No. 4 pp. 78–88

Research suggests that learners will likely spend a substantial amount of time looking at the model's face when it is visible in a video-based modeling example. Consequently, in this study we hypothesized that learners might not attend timely to the ...

Training self-assessment and task-selection skills: A cognitive approach to improving self-regulated learning

Danny Kostons; Tamara van Gog; Fred Paas

Learning and Instruction Vol. 22, No. 2 (April 2012) pp. 121–132

For self-regulated learning to be effective, students need to be able to accurately assess their own performance on a learning task and use this assessment for the selection of a new learning task. Evidence suggests, however, that students have...

Language: English

Self-assessment and task selection in learner-controlled instruction: Differences between effective and ineffective learners

Danny Kostons; Tamara van Gog; Fred Paas

Computers & Education Vol. 54, No. 4 (May 2010) pp. 932–940

Learner-controlled instruction is often found to be less effective for learning than fixed or adaptive system-controlled instruction. One possible reason for that finding is that students – especially novices – might not able to accurately assess...

Language: English

Effects of process-oriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer performance

Tamara van Gog; Fred Paas; Jeroen J.G. van Merriënboer

Learning and Instruction Vol. 16, No. 2 (April 2006) pp. 154–164

In the domain of electrical circuits troubleshooting, a full factorial experiment investigated the hypotheses that (a) studying worked examples would lead to better transfer performance than solving conventional problems, with less investment of...

Language: English

Effects of studying sequences of process-oriented and product-oriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer efficiency

Tamara van Gog; Fred Paas; Jeroen J.G. van Merriënboer

Learning and Instruction Vol. 18, No. 3 (June 2008) pp. 211–222

Whereas product-oriented worked examples only present a problem solution, process-oriented worked examples additionally explain the rationale behind the presented solution. Given the importance of understanding this rationale for attaining transfer, ...

Language: English

Process-Oriented Worked Examples: Improving Transfer Performance through Enhanced Understanding

Tamara van Gog; Fred Paas; Jeroen J. G. van Merrienboer

Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences Vol. 32, No. 1 (January 2004) pp. 83–98

The research on worked examples has shown that for novices, studying worked examples is often a more effective and efficient way of learning than solving conventional problems. This theoretical paper argues that adding process-oriented information...

Effects of Worked Examples in a Primary School Mathematics Curriculum

Nelleke van Loon-Hillen; Tamara van Gog; Saskia Brand-Gruwel

Interactive Learning Environments Vol. 20, No. 1 (2012) pp. 89–99

A large body of research has shown that for novice learners, instruction that relies more heavily on worked examples than on problem solving, is more effective for learning as shown by higher test performance. Moreover, this beneficial effect is...

The effects of practice schedule on learning a complex judgment task

Anne S. Helsdingen; Tamara van Gog; Jeroen J.G. van Merriënboer

Learning and Instruction Vol. 21, No. 1 (February 2011) pp. 126–136

The effects of practice schedule on learning a complex judgment task were investigated. In Experiment 1, participants' judgment accuracy on a retention test was higher after a random practice schedule than after a blocked schedule or...

Language: English

Attention to the model's face when learning from video modeling examples in adolescents with and without autism spectrum disorder

Margot Wermeskerken van; Bianca Grimmius; Tamara Gog van

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning Vol. 34, No. 1 (February 2018) pp. 32–41

We investigated the effects of seeing the instructor's (i.e., the model's) face in video modeling examples on students' attention and their learning outcomes. Research with university students suggested that the model's face attracts students'...

Unraveling the Effects of Critical Thinking Instructions, Practice, and Self-Explanation on Students' Reasoning Performance

Anita Heijltjes; Tamara van Gog; Jimmie Leppink; Fred Paas

Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences Vol. 43, No. 4 (July 2015) pp. 487–506

Acquisition of critical thinking skills is considered an important goal in higher education, but it is still unclear which specific instructional techniques are effective for fostering it. The main aim of this study was to unravel the impact of...

The Effects of Constructivist Learning Environments: A Commentary

Remy M. J. P. Rikers; Tamara van Gog; Fred Paas

Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences Vol. 36, No. 5 (September 2008) pp. 463–467

This special issue on the effects of constructivist learning environments is based on a symposium organized during the last annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association in Chicago. The studies in this issue not only provide an...

In the eyes of the beholder: How experts and novices interpret dynamic stimuli

Halszka Jarodzka; Katharina Scheiter; Peter Gerjets; Tamara van Gog

Learning and Instruction Vol. 20, No. 2 (April 2010) pp. 146–154

Tasks with a complex, dynamic visual component require not only the acquisition of conceptual/procedural but also of perceptual/attentional skills. This study examined expertise differences in perceiving and interpreting complex, dynamic visual...

Language: English

Learning from Video Modeling Examples: Does Gender Matter?

Vincent Hoogerheide; Sofie M. M. Loyens; Tamara van Gog

Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences Vol. 44, No. 1 (2016) pp. 69–86

Online learning from video modeling examples, in which a human model demonstrates and explains how to perform a learning task, is an effective instructional method that is increasingly used nowadays. However, model characteristics such as gender...

Effects of study intention and generating multiple choice questions on expository text retention

Vincent Hoogerheide; Justine Staal; Lydia Schaap; Tamara van Gog

Learning and Instruction Vol. 60, No. 1 (April 2019) pp. 191–198

Teachers often recommend their students to generate test questions and answers as a means of preparing for an exam. There is a paucity of research on the effects of this instructional strategy. Two recent studies showed positive effects of...

Language: English

Effects of creating video-based modeling examples on learning and transfer

Vincent Hoogerheide; Sofie M.M. Loyens; Tamara van Gog

Learning and Instruction Vol. 33, No. 1 (October 2014) pp. 108–119

Two experiments investigated whether acting as a peer model for a video-based modeling example, which entails studying a text with the intention to explain it to others and then actually explaining it on video, would foster learning and transfer. In ...

Language: English

Improving critical thinking: Effects of dispositions and instructions on economics students' reasoning skills

Anita Heijltjes; Tamara van Gog; Jimmie Leppink; Fred Paas

Learning and Instruction Vol. 29, No. 1 (February 2014) pp. 31–42

This experiment investigated the impact of critical thinking dispositions and instructions on economics students' performance on reasoning skills. Participants (

Language: English

Activation of inaccurate prior knowledge affects primary-school students’ metacognitive judgments and calibration

Mariëtte H. van Loon; Anique B.H. de Bruin; Tamara van Gog; Jeroen J.G. van Merriënboer

Learning and Instruction Vol. 24, No. 1 (April 2013) pp. 15–25

The study investigated whether activation of inaccurate prior knowledge before study contributes to primary-school children’s commission errors and overconfidence in these errors when learning new concepts. Findings indicate that inaccurate prior...

Language: English

Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load

Jimmie Leppink; Fred Paas; Tamara van Gog; Cees P.M. van der Vleuten; Jeroen J.G. van Merriënboer

Learning and Instruction Vol. 30, No. 1 (April 2014) pp. 32–42

In two studies, we investigated whether a recently developed psychometric instrument can differentiate intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Study I revealed a similar three-factor solution for language learning (

Language: English

Effectiveness of eye movement modeling examples in problem solving: The role of verbal ambiguity and prior knowledge

Tim van Marlen; Margot van Wermeskerken; Halszka Jarodzka; Tamara van Gog

Learning and Instruction Vol. 58, No. 1 (December 2018) pp. 274–283

Eye movement modeling examples (EMME) are video modeling examples with the model's eye movements superimposed. Thus far, EMME on problem-solving tasks seem to be effective for guiding students' attention, but this does not translate into higher...

Language: English

Explaining the segmentation effect in learning from animations: The role of pausing and temporal cueing

Ingrid A.E. Spanjers; Tamara van Gog; Pieter Wouters; Jeroen J.G. van Merriënboer

Computers & Education Vol. 59, No. 2 (September 2012) pp. 274–280

Segmentation of animations, that is presenting them in pieces rather than as a continuous stream of information, has been shown to have a beneficial effect on cognitive load and learning for novices. Two different explanations of this segmentation...

Language: English

Training Self-Regulated Learning Skills with Video Modeling Examples: Do Task-Selection Skills Transfer?

Steven F. Raaijmakers; Martine Baars; Lydia Schaap; Fred Paas; Jeroen van Merriënboer; Tamara van Gog

Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences Vol. 46, No. 2 (2018) pp. 273–290

Self-assessment and task-selection skills are crucial in self-regulated learning situations in which students can choose their own tasks. Prior research suggested that training with video modeling examples, in which another person (the model)...

Effects of different cue types on the accuracy of primary school teachers' judgments of students' mathematical understanding

Sophie Oudman; Janneke van de Pol; Arthur Bakker; Mirjam Moerbeek; Tamara van Gog

Teaching and Teacher Education: An International Journal of Research and Studies Vol. 76, No. 1 (November 2018) pp. 214–226

To gain insight into how teachers' judgment accuracy can be improved, we investigated effects of cue-type availability. While thinking aloud, 21 teachers judged their fourth grade students' (n = 176) decimal magnitude understanding. Sensitivity ...

Language: English

Learning from video modeling examples: Content kept equal, adults are more effective models than peers

Vincent Hoogerheide; Margot van Wermeskerken; Sofie M.M. Loyens; Tamara van Gog

Learning and Instruction Vol. 44, No. 1 (August 2016) pp. 22–30

Learning from (video) modeling examples in which a model demonstrates how to perform a task is an effective instructional strategy. The model-observer similarity (MOS) hypothesis postulates that (perceived) similarity between learners and the model...

Language: English

Effects of task experience and layout on learning from text and pictures with or without unnecessary picture descriptions

Gertjan Rop; Anne Schüler; Peter P.J.L. Verkoeijen; Katharina Scheiter; Tamara Gog van

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning Vol. 34, No. 4 (August 2018) pp. 458–470

The presentation of extraneous (i.e., irrelevant or unnecessary) information may hamper learning with multimedia. The present study examined whether people can learn to ignore unnecessary information with increasing experience with the task and...

Effects of prior knowledge and concept-map structure on disorientation, cognitive load, and learning

Franck Amadieu; Tamara van Gog; Fred Paas; André Tricot; Claudette Mariné

Learning and Instruction Vol. 19, No. 5 (October 2009) pp. 376–386

This study explored the effects of prior knowledge (high vs. low; HPK and LPK) and concept-map structure (hierarchical vs. network; HS and NS) on disorientation, cognitive load, and learning from non-linear documents on “the infection process of a...

Language: English

Instructional Design for Advanced Learners: Establishing Connections between the Theoretical Frameworks of Cognitive Load and Deliberate Practice

Tamara van Gog; K Anders Ericsson; Remy M. J. P. Rikers; Fred Paas

Educational Technology Research and Development Vol. 53, No. 3 (2005) pp. 73–82

Cognitive load theory (CLT) has been successful in identifying instructional formats that are more effective and efficient than conventional problem solving in the initial, novice phase of skill acquisition. However, recent findings regarding the ...

Formative Assessment in an Online Learning Environment to Support Flexible On-the-Job Learning in Complex Professional Domains

Tamara van Gog; Dominique M. A. Sluijsmans; Desiree Joosten-ten Brinke; Frans J. Prins

Educational Technology Research and Development Vol. 58, No. 3 (June 2010) pp. 311–324

This article describes a blueprint for an online learning environment that is based on prominent instructional design and assessment theories for supporting learning in complex domains. The core of this environment consists of formative assessment...

Problem-based learning as a facilitator of conceptual change

Sofie M.M. Loyens; Suzanne H. Jones; Jeroen Mikkers; Tamara van Gog

Learning and Instruction Vol. 38, No. 1 (August 2015) pp. 34–42

We investigated whether problem-based learning (PBL) can foster conceptual change. Students were randomly assigned to a PBL, lecture-based, or self-study group, all receiving instruction about the topic of Newtonian laws. Conceptual change was...

Language: English

Effects of training self-assessment and using assessment standards on retrospective and prospective monitoring of problem solving

Martine Baars; Sigrid Vink; Tamara van Gog; Anique de Bruin; Fred Paas

Learning and Instruction Vol. 33, No. 1 (October 2014) pp. 92–107

Both retrospective and prospective monitoring are considered important for self-regulated learning of problem-solving skills. Retrospective monitoring (or self-assessment; SA) refers to students' assessments of how well they performed on a problem...

Language: English

Effects of performance feedback valence on perceptions of invested mental effort

Steven F. Raaijmakers; Martine Baars; Lydia Schaap; Fred Paas; Tamara van Gog

Learning and Instruction Vol. 51, No. 1 (October 2017) pp. 36–46

We investigated whether the valence of performance feedback provided after a task, would affect participants’ perceptions of how much mental effort they invested in that same task. In three experiments, we presented participants with problem-solving ...

Language: English

Measuring Cognitive Load with Subjective Rating Scales during Problem Solving: Differences between Immediate and Delayed Ratings

Annett Schmeck; Maria Opfermann; Tamara van Gog; Fred Paas; Detlev Leutner

Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences Vol. 43, No. 1 (January 2015) pp. 93–114

Subjective cognitive load (CL) rating scales are widely used in educational research. However, there are still some open questions regarding the point of time at which such scales should be applied. Whereas some studies apply rating scales directly...

Effects of Conceptual Knowledge and Availability of Information Sources on Law Students' Legal Reasoning

Fleurie Nievelstein; Tamara van Gog; Henny P. A. Boshuizen; Frans J. Prins

Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences Vol. 38, No. 1 (January 2010) pp. 23–35

Due to the complexity of the legal domain, reasoning about law cases is a very complex skill. For novices in law school, legal reasoning is even more complex because they have not yet acquired the conceptual knowledge needed for distilling the...

Content and Timing of Feedback in a Web-Based Learning Environment: Effects on Learning as a Function of Prior Knowledge

Marieke H. S. B. Smits; Jo Boon; Dominique M. A. Sluijsmans; Tamara van Gog

Interactive Learning Environments Vol. 16, No. 2 (August 2008) pp. 183–193

This study investigated the effectiveness of different types of feedback content (elaborate versus global) and feedback timing (immediate versus delayed) for learning genetics in a web-based learning environment as a function of learners' prior...

Effects of Task Experience and Layout on Learning from Text and Pictures with or without Unnecessary Picture Descriptions

Gertjan Rop; Anne Schüler; Peter P. J. L. Verkoeijen; Katharina Scheiter; Tamara van Gog

Journal of Computer Assisted Learning Vol. 34, No. 4 (2018) pp. 458–470

The presentation of extraneous (i.e., irrelevant or unnecessary) information may hamper learning with multimedia. The present study examined whether people can learn to ignore unnecessary information with increasing experience with the task and...

Learning to see: Guiding students' attention via a Model's eye movements fosters learning

Halszka Jarodzka; Tamara van Gog; Michael Dorr; Katharina Scheiter; Peter Gerjets

Learning and Instruction Vol. 25, No. 1 (June 2013) pp. 62–70

This study investigated how to teach perceptual tasks, that is, classifying fish locomotion, through eye movement modeling examples (EMME). EMME consisted of a replay of eye movements of a didactically behaving domain expert (model), which had been...

Language: English

Is there a role for direct instruction in problem-based learning? Comparing student-constructed versus integrated model answers

Lisette Wijnia; Sofie M.M. Loyens; Tamara van Gog; Eva Derous; Henk G. Schmidt

Learning and Instruction Vol. 34, No. 1 (December 2014) pp. 22–31

Problem-based learning (PBL) requires students to formulate learning issues that need to be answered by studying multiple literature resources. Advocates of high instructional guidance argue that this is too cognitively demanding for students and...

Language: English

Task Experience as a Boundary Condition for the Negative Effects of Irrelevant Information on Learning

Gertjan Rop; Margot van Wermeskerken; Jacqueline A. de Nooijer; Peter P. J. L. Verkoeijen; Tamara van Gog

Educational Psychology Review Vol. 30, No. 1 (2018) pp. 229–253

Research on multimedia learning has shown that learning is hampered when a multimedia message includes extraneous information that is not relevant for the task, because processing the extraneous information uses up scarce attention and working...

Acquisition of Visual Perceptual Skills from Worked Examples: Learning to Interpret Electrocardiograms (ECGs)

Kees van den Berge; Tamara van Gog; Silvia Mamede; Henk G. Schmidt; Jan L. C. M. van Saase; Remy M. J. P. Rikers

Interactive Learning Environments Vol. 21, No. 3 (2013) pp. 263–272

Research has shown that for acquiring problem-solving skills, instruction consisting of studying worked examples is more effective and efficient for novice learners than instruction consisting of problem-solving. This study investigated whether...